The SAS: A History of Britain’s Special Air Service

Introduction

The Special Air Service (SAS) is arguably the most famous special forces unit in the world. Founded in the deserts of North Africa in 1941, it has conducted operations on every continent and in virtually every major British conflict since the Second World War. Its motto — Who Dares Wins — has entered common usage, and its winged dagger cap badge is one of the most recognised military emblems on earth. [1]

From David Stirling’s improvised desert raiding force of 65 men to a global counter-terrorism and special operations regiment, the SAS has defined the modern concept of special forces. Its methods, organisation and ethos have been copied — often explicitly — by elite units from the United States (Delta Force), Australia (SASR), New Zealand, and dozens of other nations. [2]

This article traces the full history of 22 SAS Regiment, its antecedents and its reserve components, from the Western Desert to the battlefields of Afghanistan.

Origins: David Stirling and the Desert War

The SAS was conceived by Lieutenant David Stirling of the Scots Guards, then serving with No. 8 Commando (part of Layforce) in North Africa. Stirling, a 6’5″ Scotsman and pre-war art student, recognised that small, highly trained raiding parties could penetrate deep behind Axis lines to destroy aircraft and supplies on the ground — achieving strategic effect with minimal manpower and at a fraction of the cost of a conventional brigade operation. [1]

In July 1941, Stirling — hospitalised after a parachuting accident — wrote a memorandum outlining his concept and smuggled it to the Commander-in-Chief Middle East, General Sir Claude Auchinleck, by the expedient of bluffing his way past the sentries at GHQ Cairo on crutches. Auchinleck approved the formation of “L” Detachment, Special Air Service Brigade. The name was a deliberate deception — there was no SAS Brigade. The phantom formation was intended to mislead Axis intelligence (who monitored British order-of-battle changes closely) into believing a large airborne force existed in the Middle East. [1]

Stirling recruited a small group of volunteers, many from the disbanded Layforce commando group. Among the earliest members were Lieutenant Robert “Paddy” Mayne (a pre-war Irish rugby international of formidable reputation), Lieutenant Jock Lewes (a Welsh Guards officer and Oxford rowing blue who invented the “Lewes bomb” — a combined incendiary and explosive device specifically designed to destroy aircraft) and Sergeant Johnny Cooper. These men, and others like Reg Seekings and Jim Almonds, formed the cadre from which the entire SAS tradition grew. [3]

North Africa and the Mediterranean 1941–1943

The first SAS operation on 16 November 1941 was a parachute raid on Axis airfields at Gazala and Tmimi. It was a near-total disaster — high winds of up to 30 knots scattered the parachutists across the desert, and equipment containers were lost. Only 22 of the original 65 men returned. Jock Lewes was killed by strafing from an Italian fighter during the withdrawal. But the survivors, collected by the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG), had proved that the concept of deep-penetration raiding was sound — the delivery method simply needed to change. [1]

Subsequent raids, delivered by LRDG vehicles rather than parachute, were devastatingly effective. On the night of 14 December 1941, Paddy Mayne single-handedly destroyed 24 aircraft at Wadi Tamet airfield, ripping out instrument panels with his bare hands when his supply of Lewes bombs ran out. On the same night, other SAS parties hit Sirte and Agedabia airfields. Over the course of the desert campaign, the SAS is credited with destroying over 400 enemy aircraft on the ground — more than were shot down by the entire Desert Air Force in the same period. [3]

The SAS developed its own motorised capability, acquiring armed Willys Jeeps fitted with twin Vickers K guns (a drum-fed aircraft machine gun delivering devastating firepower). These jeep columns — roaming hundreds of miles behind the lines, attacking airfields, fuel dumps, and transport convoys — became the signature SAS operating pattern of the desert war. [1]

By late 1942, L Detachment had grown to regimental strength and was redesignated 1st SAS Regiment. A second regiment — 2 SAS — was formed under Stirling’s brother, Lieutenant Colonel William “Bill” Stirling. The SAS also recruited French volunteers (who would form 3 and 4 SAS) and Greek volunteers into the Special Raiding Squadron (SRS). Operations expanded to Sicily, Italy and the Aegean islands, where SAS teams conducted reconnaissance, prisoner snatches and sabotage operations. [2]

David Stirling himself was captured in Tunisia in January 1943, betrayed by a local guide. He spent the rest of the war as a prisoner, making multiple escape attempts before being sent to the high-security camp at Colditz Castle, where he remained until liberation. [1]

Europe 1944–1945

For the D-Day campaign, the SAS was reorganised as the SAS Brigade under Brigadier Roddy McLeod, comprising: 1 SAS (British), 2 SAS (British), 3 SAS (French — 3e Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes), 4 SAS (French — 2e Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes) and 5 SAS (Belgian — 1er Régiment Parachutiste). The total strength was approximately 2,500 men. [2]

SAS teams were parachuted deep into occupied France in the weeks before and after D-Day. Over 40 operations were mounted between June and November 1944. Among the most significant:

• Operation Bulbasket — 1 SAS in the Vienne, attacking the railway lines feeding German reinforcements toward Normandy. Fifty men were captured and executed under Hitler’s Commando Order.
• Operation Houndsworth — 1 SAS in Burgundy, working with the Maquis to interdict German communications. The party called in 22 air strikes, derailed six trains, and reportedly killed or wounded 220 enemy. [4]
• Operation Loyton — 2 SAS in the Vosges mountains. The operation ended in disaster: 31 captured SAS men were tortured and executed at Natzweiler and other concentration camps. After the war, SAS war crimes investigation teams tracked down and brought to justice the perpetrators. [2]

As the Allies advanced across France and into the Low Countries, SAS units operated in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany itself, carrying out reconnaissance, prisoner snatches, and the liberation of concentration camps. Paddy Mayne, now commanding 1 SAS, led his regiment in a dramatic armoured jeep column into Germany in April 1945 — an action for which he was recommended for the Victoria Cross, though the award was controversially downgraded to a third bar to his DSO. [3]

Disbandment and Rebirth: The Malayan Emergency

The SAS was disbanded on 8 October 1945. The War Office, as so often in British military history, considered special forces an expensive wartime expedient with no peacetime role. However, the concept proved too valuable to abandon entirely. In 1947, 21 SAS Regiment (Artists Rifles) was formed as a Territorial Army unit, drawing heavily on wartime SAS veterans to preserve the institutional knowledge and ethos. [2]

The regiment’s full-time rebirth came during the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960). In 1950, Brigadier J.M. “Mad Mike” Calvert, a wartime Chindit commander and SAS veteran, was tasked by General Sir John Harding to assess the jungle war against Communist insurgents. Calvert recommended the formation of a deep-penetration jungle unit. The result was the Malayan Scouts (SAS), initially a somewhat rough collection that Calvert admitted included too many misfits. Under his successor, Lieutenant Colonel John Woodhouse, the unit was professionalised and redesignated 22 SAS Regiment in 1952. [5]

In Malaya, the SAS developed the techniques that became fundamental to British counter-insurgency doctrine and remained core SAS skills for decades:

• The four-man patrol — the basic SAS tactical unit, small enough to move silently through jungle but large enough to fight and carry its own communications
• Long-duration deep-jungle operations — patrols operating for weeks or months in primary jungle, self-sufficient and without resupply
• Hearts-and-minds — the SAS pioneered building relationships with aboriginal communities (the Orang Asli), providing medical care and earning trust to gather intelligence on insurgent movements [5]
• Tree-jumping — parachuting into the jungle canopy (an extremely hazardous technique later abandoned after several fatalities)

These methods proved decisive, and the Malayan Emergency is widely regarded as one of the most successful counter-insurgency campaigns in history.

Oman, Borneo and Aden: The Counter-Insurgency Years

Through the 1950s, ’60s and ’70s, 22 SAS deployed on a series of predominantly counter-insurgency operations that honed the regiment into the formidable force that would storm the Iranian Embassy in 1980.

In Oman (Jebel Akhdar, 1958–59), a single SAS squadron under Major Johnny Watts scaled a supposedly unclimbable 8,000-foot mountain plateau to defeat rebel forces holding the summit — an operation completed in a single night march that is considered one of the most audacious in the regiment’s history. [2]

During the Borneo Confrontation (1963–66), SAS four-man patrols conducted clandestine cross-border operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the secret programme codenamed “Claret”. These operations — penetrating up to 20 kilometres into Indonesian territory — were so secret that their existence was not publicly acknowledged for decades. The SAS also raised and trained local Border Scouts from indigenous Dyak communities. [5]

In Aden (1964–67), the SAS fought a vicious urban and mountain campaign against nationalist insurgents in the Radfan mountains and the back streets of Crater district. It was in Aden that the SAS first encountered the challenges of modern urban counter-insurgency — lessons that would prove prescient.

The Dhofar War in Oman (1970–76) was perhaps the regiment’s finest counter-insurgency achievement. SAS teams raised and trained local firqats (militia) from surrendered enemy fighters, combining offensive military operations with civil development programmes — wells, schools, veterinary care for livestock. The approach was classic hearts-and-minds doctrine applied with characteristic SAS pragmatism. [2]

The Battle of Mirbat on 19 July 1972 became one of the regiment’s defining actions. A nine-man SAS British Army Training Team (BATT), supported by local forces, held the town of Mirbat against approximately 250 adoo (enemy) fighters in a dawn assault. Captain Mike Kealy commanded the defence while Trooper Sekonaia Takavesi (a Fijian SAS soldier) and Captain Labalaba fought the 25-pounder gun virtually at point-blank range. Labalaba was killed at his gun. The battle was won when SAS reinforcements arrived by helicopter and Sultan’s Armed Forces jets strafed the attackers. [6]

The Iranian Embassy Siege: 1980

On 5 May 1980, the SAS burst into the world’s consciousness in the most dramatic fashion imaginable. Six armed men of the Democratic Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Arabistan had seized the Iranian Embassy at 16 Princes Gate, London, on 30 April, taking 26 hostages and demanding the release of political prisoners in Iran.

For six days, the Metropolitan Police negotiated while the SAS’s Special Projects team — the Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW) Wing from Hereford — prepared an assault plan codenamed Operation Nimrod. The regiment rehearsed on a full-scale mock-up at Regent’s Park Barracks. When the terrorists killed hostage Abbas Lavasani and threw his body outside, the Home Secretary William Whitelaw authorised military force. [6]

At 19:23, Operation Nimrod was broadcast live on television to an estimated 500 million viewers. Black-clad troopers abseiled down the embassy’s rear facade, detonated frame charges on the windows, and stormed the building from multiple entry points simultaneously. One abseil team became entangled, and a fire broke out on the first-floor balcony — captured live on camera. Despite these complications, the building was cleared in eleven minutes. Five of the six terrorists were killed and all but one of the remaining hostages was rescued alive. [6]

The operation transformed the SAS from a little-known regiment into the world’s most famous special forces unit overnight. It also triggered a global wave of countries establishing or expanding their own counter-terrorist units, many trained by or modelled on the SAS.

The Falklands War: 1982

During the Falklands War, both D and G Squadrons, 22 SAS, deployed south with the Task Force. The SAS contributed reconnaissance, diversionary raids and direct action across the islands. [7]

The raid on Pebble Island on 14–15 May saw D Squadron destroy eleven Argentine aircraft on the ground — Pucarás, Mentors and a Skyvan — in a 30-minute assault supported by naval gunfire from HMS Glamorgan. The operation unconsciously echoed Paddy Mayne’s desert airfield raids four decades earlier and denied the Argentines a forward air base threatening the planned amphibious landing at San Carlos. [7]

SAS patrols provided vital intelligence from covert observation posts overlooking Argentine positions — enduring weeks lying motionless in freezing rain and peat bogs — prior to the landings. The diversionary raid on Goose Green by D Squadron drew Argentine attention from the main landings at San Carlos.

The regiment suffered its worst single loss when a Sea King helicopter, cross-decking troops between HMS Hermes and HMS Intrepid, crashed into the sea on 19 May after a suspected bird strike. Twenty men of D and G Squadrons were killed — a devastating blow. [7]

In the final advance on Stanley, the SAS and SBS conducted diversionary operations around Darwin and Goose Green, and D Squadron’s mountain troop made a dramatic advance along the northern coast, calling in naval gunfire on Argentine positions.

The Gulf Wars, Afghanistan and Beyond

In the 1991 Gulf War, SAS columns were deployed deep into western Iraq to hunt Scud missile launchers — the mobile ballistic missiles Iraq was firing at Israel and Saudi Arabia, threatening to fragment the Coalition. The loss of the Bravo Two Zero patrol — an eight-man foot patrol compromised by a goatherd — became one of the most discussed and disputed special forces operations of the late 20th century, recounted in multiple books with contradictory accounts. Three men were captured (including patrol commander Andy McNab), one died of hypothermia, and Chris Ryan made a legendary solo escape of 186 miles to the Syrian border. [8]

After 11 September 2001, 22 SAS deployed to Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom, initially working alongside US Special Forces and the CIA’s Special Activities Division in northern Afghanistan. SAS teams called in air strikes during the fall of the Taliban regime and later conducted direct-action raids and intelligence-gathering operations across Helmand and Kandahar provinces during Operation Herrick. [2]

In Iraq (Operation Telic, 2003–2009), SAS squadrons formed the core of Task Force Black, conducting a nightly tempo of raids against insurgent networks in Baghdad and surrounding provinces that was described by US General Stanley McChrystal as “industrial-strength” counter-terrorism. Details remain largely classified, though their scale and intensity were unprecedented in the regiment’s history. [8]

Today, 22 SAS Regiment remains based at Stirling Lines, Hereford (named after the founder) and continues to operate worldwide. The regiment is supported by two reserve units: 21 SAS (Artists) in London and the south-east, and 23 SAS in the Midlands and north.

SAS Organisation and Selection

22 SAS comprises four operational “Sabre” squadrons — A, B, D and G — each of approximately 60 men divided into four troops specialising in different insertion methods: air (freefall parachute), boat (maritime and riverine), mobility (vehicles) and mountain (climbing and Arctic warfare). Additional support includes 264 (SAS) Signal Squadron and the Regimental Headquarters element. [2]

SAS Selection is one of the most gruelling military courses in the world. Held twice yearly in the Brecon Beacons, the course lasts approximately five months and has a failure rate of roughly 90 per cent. The culminating test phase includes solo timed navigation marches carrying increasingly heavy loads over the Welsh mountains, building to “Endurance” (or “Long Drag”) — a 40-mile march with 55 lbs of equipment over the highest peaks of the Beacons, to be completed within 20 hours. Those who pass then face 14 weeks of Continuation Training (jungle, combat survival, resistance to interrogation) before finally being “badged.” [5]

Collector’s Corner: SAS Insignia and Collectables

SAS items are among the most sought-after and valuable in all military collecting. The combination of the regiment’s fame, its secrecy, and the rarity of genuine items drives extraordinary prices at auction.

The Winged Dagger Badge

The iconic winged dagger cap badge was designed by Sergeant Bob Tait in 1941. The original WWII version — a white metal badge with a downward-pointing “Excalibur” dagger flanked by stylised wings — is extremely rare and commands prices of £500–£2,000+ depending on variant and condition. Post-war versions (anodised, staybright, and officers’ gilt/silver) are more available but still fetch £50–£300. [1]

Key variants sought by collectors:

• WWII L Detachment original badge — the rarest, with very few authenticated examples in private hands
• Rhodesian SAS — C Squadron, Rhodesian SAS, used a distinctive locally-made badge during the Bush War
• Malayan Scouts period — transitional badges from the early 1950s before standard patterns were established
• 21 SAS and 23 SAS Territorial — reserve regiment variants with slightly different finishing

Operational Wings and Qualification Badges

The SAS parachute qualification wing — embroidered cloth wings with a dagger worn on the right upper arm — is one of the most recognisable military badges. WWII-era embroidered wings were locally manufactured in the Middle East and vary considerably. Post-war examples come in sand-on-blue (No. 2 dress) and subdued variants. Genuine operational wings fetch £80–£500 depending on era and provenance.

Medal Groups

Named medal groups to SAS soldiers — particularly those with operational gallantry awards (MC, MM, DCM, DSO) — are exceptionally valuable. A WWII SAS DCM group might fetch £10,000–£30,000 at auction. Post-war groups with Northern Ireland, Falklands, or Gulf War service are equally prized. The most valuable SAS groups are those with multiple operational awards or connections to famous actions (Mirbat, Iranian Embassy, Pebble Island). [9]

Collectors should be aware that SAS items are among the most frequently faked in the hobby. Authentication requires specialist knowledge — examine provenance chains, manufacturing techniques, and period-correct materials before purchasing. The SAS Regimental Association does not authenticate items for dealers or collectors.

Books, Documents and Ephemera

SAS-related documentary material — unit war diaries, personal diaries, operational orders, and original photographs — is of immense value. First editions of published SAS memoirs (particularly Winged Dagger by Roy Farran, 1948, or Eastern Approaches by Fitzroy Maclean, 1949) are collected in their own right.

Sources

1. Mortimer, Gavin. Stirling’s Men: The Inside History of the SAS in World War II. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004. ISBN 978-0-297-84762-5.
2. Hoe, Alan, and Eric Morris. Re-enter the SAS: The Special Air Service and the Malayan Scouts. London: Leo Cooper, 1994. ISBN 978-0-85052-397-0.
3. Ross, Hamish. Paddy Mayne: Lt Col Blair “Paddy” Mayne, 1 SAS Regiment. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-0-7509-3487-7.
4. Kemp, Anthony. The SAS: Savage Wars of Peace 1947 to the Present. London: John Murray, 1994. ISBN 978-0-7195-4888-0.
5. Scholey, Pete. Who Dares Wins: The SAS and the Iranian Embassy Siege. London: Osprey, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84603-395-4.
6. Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. Who Dares Wins: The SAS and the Iranian Embassy Siege 1980. Oxford: Osprey, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84603-395-4.
7. Scholey, Pete. SAS Heroes: Remarkable Soldiers, Extraordinary Men. Oxford: Osprey, 2008. ISBN 978-1-84603-360-2.
8. Urban, Mark. Task Force Black: The Explosive True Story of the SAS and the Secret War in Iraq. London: Little, Brown, 2010. ISBN 978-1-4087-0108-3.
9. Imperial War Museum. “Special Air Service.” iwm.org.uk.